Download programming in scala a comprehensive step-by-step guide




















Learn Scala through a series of examples. An excellent step-by-step introduction to many of the Scala features with the help of simple code examples.

This is the most technical and detailed manual concerning the inner working of the Scala language. If you have any doubts concerning the behavior of a program written in Scala, if you wish to explore all of the most obscure features, or are interested in the expected semantics of the available constructs, this document will address your questions.

Reading from the standard input with do-while. Calculating greatest common divisor with recursion. Listing files in a directory with a for expression. List of Listings xxvi 7. Using multiple filters in a for expression. Using multiple generators in a for expression. Mid-stream assignment in a for expression. Transforming an Array[File] to Array[Int] with a for. A try-catch clause in Scala. A try-finally clause in Scala.

A catch clause that yields a value. A match expression with side effects. A match expression that yields a value. Looping without break or continue. A recursive alternative to looping with vars. Variable scoping when printing a multiplication table. A functional way to create a multiplication table. LongLines with a local processLine function. A parameter with a default value. A function with two parameters that have defaults. Defining and invoking a curried function.

Using the loan pattern to write to a file. Using a by-name parameter. Defining parameterless methods width and height. Defining ArrayElement as a subclass of Element. Overriding a parameterless method with a field. Defining contents as a parametric field. Invoking a superclass constructor. Declaring a final method. Declaring a final class. Class Element with above, beside, and toString.

A factory object with factory methods. Class Element refactored to use factory methods. Hiding implementation with private classes. Mixing in a trait using extends. Mixing in a trait using with. Mixing in multiple traits.

Defining an enrichment trait. Abstract class IntQueue. The Doubling stackable modification trait. Mixing in a trait when instantiating with new. Stackable modification traits Incrementing and Filtering. Long form of a simple package declaration. Multiple packages in the same file. Concise access to classes and packages. Symbols in enclosing packages not automatically available. Accessing hidden package names. Importing the members of a regular not singleton object. Importing a package name.

How private access differs in Scala and Java. How protected access differs in Scala and Java. Flexible scope of protection with access qualifiers. Accessing private members of companion classes and objects. A package object. Writing tests with FunSuite. Specifying and testing behavior with a ScalaTest FlatSpec. Specifying and testing behavior with the specs2 framework. Using tests to facilitate communication among stakeholders.

Writing property-based tests with ScalaCheck. The simplifyTop function, which does a pattern match. A pattern match with wildcard patterns. A pattern match with constant patterns. A pattern match with a variable pattern. A pattern match with a constructor pattern. A sequence pattern with a fixed length. A sequence pattern with an arbitrary length. A pattern match with a tuple pattern. A pattern match with typed patterns. Using isInstanceOf and asInstanceOf poor style.

A pattern with a variable binding via the sign. A match expression with a pattern guard. Match expression in which case order matters. A sealed hierarchy of case classes. Defining multiple variables with one assignment. A for expression with a tuple pattern. Picking elements of a list that match a pattern. The top half of the expression formatter.

The bottom half of the expression formatter. An application that prints formatted expressions. A class with public vars. How public vars are expanded into getter and setter methods. Defining getter and setter methods directly.

Defining a getter and setter without an associated field. The halfAdder method. The fullAdder method. The Simulation class. The first half of the BasicCircuitSimulation class. The second half of the BasicCircuitSimulation class.

The CircuitSimulation class. Hiding a primary constructor by making it private. Type abstraction for functional queues.

A nonvariant rigid Cell class. A type parameter with a lower bound. A contravariant output channel. Covariance and contravariance of Function1s. Demonstration of function type parameter variance. An optimized functional queue. A Person class that mixes in the Ordered trait. A merge sort function with an upper bound. Declaring abstract vars. How abstract vars are expanded into getters and setters.

A trait that uses its abstract vals. Pre-initialized fields in an anonymous class expression. Pre-initialized fields in an object definition. Pre-initialized fields in a class definition. Initializing a trait with lazy vals.

Modeling suitable food with an abstract type. Implementing an abstract type in a subclass. The US currency zone. Currency zones for Europe and Japan.

A converter object with an exchange rates map. The full code of class CurrencyZone. A function with an upper bound. A function with an implicit parameter. A function that uses an implicit parameter internally. A function that uses implicitly. A function with a context bound. Sample code that uses an implicit parameter. Sample code after type checking and insertion of implicits. Prepending a supertype element to a subtype list.

The definition of method :: cons in class List. The definition of method map in class List. The definition of the :: subclass of List. Implementation of filter in TraversableLike. Implementation of map in TraversableLike. The CanBuildFrom trait. RNA Bases. RNA strands class, first version. RNA strands class, second version. RNA strands class, final version. RNA companion object—final version. An implementation of prefix maps with Patricia tries. The companion object for prefix maps.

The Twice string extractor object. The UpperCase string extractor object. The Domain string extractor object. The ExpandedEMail extractor object. An extractor that defines an unapplySeq method. How the r method is defined in StringOps.

Simple Recipe entity class. Food and Recipe examples for use in tests. Mock database and browser modules. Database and browser modules with categories added.

A Browser class with an abstract database val. A Database class with abstract methods. The SimpleDatabase object as a Database subclass. The SimpleBrowser object as a Browser subclass. A student database and browser. A trait for food categories. A Database class that mixes in the FoodCategories trait. A SimpleDatabase object composed solely of mixins. A SimpleFoods trait. A subclass equals method that calls canEqual.

Hierarchy for binary trees. A parameterized type with equals and hashCode. Class Rational with equals and hashCode. A regular expression parser for Java identifiers. Data in JSON format. A simple JSON parser. A full JSON parser that returns meaningful results. Component assembly on a panel. Implementing a reactive Swing application. An implementation of the temperature converter.

The main program for the spreadsheet application. A spreadsheet with a rendererComponent method. First version of the Model class. Classes representing formulas. A spreadsheet that parses formulas. The evaluate method of trait Evaluator. A library for arithmetic operations.

The finished spreadsheet component. Scala adoption keeps accelerating, our community is thriving, and job ads abound. To me, the true joy of programming comes from tackling interesting challenges with simple, sophisticated solutions. I first experimented with Scala 2. My contribution was accepted, bringing support for type constructor polymorphism to Scala 2. To enable this, my first project as Scala tech lead was to begin modularizing the Scala standard library in 2.

To reduce the rate of change, Typesafe also decided to alternate changing the library and the compiler. This edition of Programming in Scala covers Scala 2. For interoperability with Java and to enjoy the same benefits from JVM optimizations, Scala compiles functions to the same bytecode as the Java 8 compiler.

Similarly, Scala traits now compile to Java interfaces with default methods. Both compilation schemes reduce the magic that older Scala compilers had to perform, aligning us more closely with the Java platform, while improving both compiletime and run-time performance, with a smoother binary compatibility story to boot!

As stewards of the language, our goal is to develop the core language as much as to foster the ecosystem. Scala is successful because of the many excellent libraries, outstanding IDEs and tools, and the friendly and ever helpful members of our community. I love programming in Scala, and I hope you will too. On behalf of the Scala community, welcome! We are grateful to all of them. Scala itself has been a collective effort of many people.

The design and the implementation of version 1. The contributors to the Scala mailing list have also given very useful feedback that helped us improve the language and its tools. George Berger has worked tremendously to make the build process and the web presence for the book work smoothly.

As a result this project has been delightfully free of technical snafus. Many people gave us valuable feedback on early versions of the text. Your comments were very helpful to us in shaping this into an even better book.

Our many years of experience teaching Stairway to Scala has helped make this book better. Lastly, Bill would like to thank Darlene Gruendl and Samantha Woolf for their help in getting the third edition completed. Our goal is that by reading this book, you can learn everything you need to be a productive Scala programmer.

All examples in this book compile with Scala version 2. Who should read this book The main target audience for this book is programmers who want to learn to program in Scala.

If you want to do your next software project in Scala, then this is the book for you. In addition, the book should be interesting to programmers wishing to expand their horizons by learning new concepts. We believe learning about Scala, and the ideas behind it, can help you become a better programmer in general.

General programming knowledge is assumed. While Scala is a fine first programming language, this is not the book to use to learn programming. On the other hand, no specific knowledge of programming languages is required.

Even though most people use Scala on the Java platform, this book does not presume you know anything about Java. However, we expect many readers to be familiar with Java, and so we sometimes compare Scala to Java to help such readers understand the differences.

How to use this book Because the main purpose of this book is to serve as a tutorial, the recommended way to read this book is in chapter order, from front to back.

If you see a term you do not know, be sure to check the glossary and the index. Many readers will skim parts of the book, and that is just fine. The glossary and index can help you backtrack whenever you skim over something too quickly.

After you have read the book once, it should also serve as a language reference. There is a formal specification of the Scala language, but the language specification tries for precision at the expense of readability. How to learn Scala You will learn a lot about Scala simply by reading this book from cover to cover. You can learn Scala faster and more thoroughly, though, if you do a few extra things.

First of all, you can take advantage of the many program examples included in the book. Typing them in yourself is a way to force your mind through each line of code. Trying variations is a way to make them more fun and to make sure you really understand how they work. Second, keep in touch with the numerous online forums.

That way, you and other Scala enthusiasts can help each other. There are numerous mailing lists, discussion forums, a chat room, a wiki, and multiple Scala-specific article feeds.

Take some time to find ones that fit your information needs. You will spend a lot less time stuck on little problems, so you can spend your time on deeper, more important questions.

Finally, once you have read enough, take on a programming project of your own. Work on a small program from scratch or develop an add-in to a larger program. You can only go so far by reading. The eBook is not simply an electronic copy of the paper version of the book.

While the content is the same as in the paper version, the eBook has been carefully designed and optimized for reading on a computer screen. The first thing to notice is that most references within the eBook are hyperlinked. If you select a reference to a chapter, figure, or glossary entry, your PDF viewer should take you immediately to the selected item so that you do not have to flip around to find it.

Additionally, at the bottom of each page in the eBook are a number of navigation links. The Cover, Overview, and Contents links take you to the front matter of the book. The Glossary and Index links take you to reference parts of the book. Finally, the Discuss link takes you to an online forum where you discuss questions with other readers, the authors, and the larger Scala community. If you find a typo, or something you think could be explained better, please click on the Suggest link, which will take you to an online web application where you can give the authors feedback.

Although the same pages appear in the eBook as in the printed book, blank pages are removed and the remaining pages renumbered. The pages are numbered differently so that it is easier for you to determine PDF page numbers when printing only a portion of the eBook.

The pages in the eBook are, therefore, numbered exactly as your PDF viewer will number them. Typographic conventions The first time a term is used, it is italicized.

The goal of this chapter is to get your fingers started typing and running Scala code. After completing this chapter, you should be able to start using Scala for simple scripting tasks. The topics are not as fundamental as those in Chapter 4, but they frequently arise in practice.

The chapter shows how traits work, describes common uses, and explains how traits improve on traditional multiple inheritance. Case classes and pattern matching are particularly helpful for tree-like recursive data. The chapter concludes with a case study on discrete event simulation, which shows some mutable objects in action.

The chapter builds up to a description of variance of type parameters and how it interacts with information hiding. The chapter describes several standard annotations and shows you how to make your own. The chapter shows you idioms for generating XML, parsing it, and processing it once it is parsed. There are several pitfalls to avoid.

Source code You can download a ZIP file containing the source code of this book, which is released under the Apache 2. Errata Although this book has been heavily reviewed and checked, errors will inevitably slip through. If you find an error, please report it at the above URL, so that we can fix it in a future printing or edition of this book. You can apply Scala to a wide range of programming tasks, from writing small scripts to building large systems.

It runs on the standard Java platform and interoperates seamlessly with all Java libraries. But it can apply its strengths even more when used for building large systems and frameworks of reusable components. Technically, Scala is a blend of object-oriented and functional programming concepts in a statically typed language. The fusion of object-oriented and functional programming shows up in many different aspects of Scala; it is probably more pervasive than in any other widely used language.

The two programming styles have complementary strengths when it comes to scalability. Its object-oriented constructs make it easy to structure larger systems and adapt them to new demands.

The combination of both styles in Scala makes it possible to express new kinds of programming patterns and component abstractions. It also leads to a legible and concise programming style.

And because it is so malleable, programming in Scala can be a lot of fun. After reading the chapter you should have a basic feel for what Scala is and what kinds of 1 Scala is pronounced skah-lah. Scala gives you this fine-grained control if you need it, because maps in Scala are not language syntax.

They are library abstractions that you can extend and adapt. You could for example specify a particular implementation, such as a HashMap or a TreeMap, or invoke the par method to obtain a ParMap that executes operations in parallel.

You could specify a default value for the map, or you could override any other method of the map you create. In each case, you can use the same easy access syntax for maps as in the example above. They will be explained in the next two chapters. Scala has a set of convenient constructs that help you get started quickly and let you program in a pleasantly concise style. At the same time, you have the assurance that you will not outgrow the language. You can always tailor the program to your requirements, because everything is based on library modules that you can select and adapt as needed.

Growing new types Eric Raymond introduced the cathedral and bazaar as two metaphors of software development. Once built, it stays unchanged for a long time. The bazaar, by contrast, is adapted and extended each day by the people working in it. Scala defines such a type in library class scala.

Yet it is just a class that 3 Raymond, The Cathedral and the Bazaar. ONE else x. ONE BigInt is representative of many other number-like types—big decimals, complex numbers, rational numbers, confidence intervals, polynomials—the list goes on.

Some programming languages implement some of these types natively. For instance, Lisp, Haskell, and Python implement big integers; Fortran and Python implement complex numbers. But any language that attempted to implement all of these abstractions at the same time would simply become too big to be manageable. Instead, Scala allows users to grow and adapt the language in the directions they need by defining easy-to-use libraries that feel like native language support. Growing new control constructs The previous example demonstrates that Scala lets you add new types that can be used as conveniently as built-in types.

The same extension principle also applies to control structures. Often, this will mean rewriting your code so that computations are distributed over several concurrent threads. Unfortunately, creating dependable multi-threaded applications has proven challenging in practice. Java comes with a rich, thread-based concurrency library. Scala programs can use it like any other Java API.

Actors are concurrency abstractions that can be implemented on top of threads. They communicate by sending messages to each other. An actor can perform two basic operations, message send and receive. The send operation, denoted by an exclamation point! Every actor has a mailbox in which incoming messages are queued.

The first message in the mailbox that matches any of the cases is selected, and the corresponding action is performed on it. Once the mailbox does not contain any messages, the actor suspends and waits for further incoming messages. It defines a receive block that will handle messages. If it receives a Data message, it adds the contained byte to the sum variable.

If it receives a GetChecksum message, it calculates a checksum from the current value of sum and sends the result back to the requester using the message send requester! The requester field is embedded in the GetChecksum message; it usually refers to the actor that made the request. Both of these constructs are completely independent of the Scala programming language. The receive block and send! All in all, the actor model has turned out to be a very pleasant means for expressing concurrent and distributed computations.

Even though they must be defined in a library, actors can feel like an integral part of the Scala language. To be sure, you need good architects and programmers to do this. Scalability is influenced by many factors, ranging from syntax details to component abstraction constructs. Scala goes further than all other well-known languages in fusing objectoriented and functional programming into a uniform language design.

For instance, where other languages might have objects and functions as two different concepts, in Scala a function value is an object. Function types are classes that can be inherited by subclasses. This might seem nothing more than an academic nicety, but it has deep consequences for scalability. In fact the actor concept shown previously could not have been implemented without this unification of functions and objects.

Scala is object-oriented Object-oriented programming has been immensely successful. Starting from Simula in the mids and Smalltalk in the 70s, it is now available in more languages than not. In some domains, objects have taken over completely. While there is not a precise definition of what object-oriented means, there is clearly something about objects that appeals to programmers.

In principle, the motivation for object-oriented programming is very simple: all but the most trivial programs need some sort of structure. The most straightforward way to do this is to put data and operations into some form of containers. The great idea of object-oriented programming is to make these containers fully general, so that they can contain operations as well as data, and that they are themselves values that can be stored in other containers, or passed as parameters to operations.

Such containers are called objects. Even though object-oriented programming has been mainstream for a long time, there are relatively few languages that have followed Smalltalk in pushing this construction principle to its logical conclusion.

For instance, many languages admit values that are not objects, such as the primitive values in Java. Or they allow static fields and methods that are not members of any object. These deviations from the pure idea of object-oriented programming look quite harmless at first, but they have an annoying tendency to complicate things and limit scalability. By contrast, Scala is an object-oriented language in pure form: every value is an object and every operation is a method call.

You can define methods with operator-like names that clients of your API can then use in operator notation. Scala is more advanced than most other languages when it comes to composing objects. Traits are like interfaces in Java, but they can also have method implementations and even fields. In this way, different aspects of classes can be encapsulated in different traits.

This looks a bit like multiple inheritance, but differs when it comes to the details. Unlike a class, a trait can add some new functionality to an unspecified superclass. Scala is functional In addition to being a pure object-oriented language, Scala is also a fullblown functional language. The ideas of functional programming are older than electronic computers. The first functional programming language was Lisp, which dates from the late 50s. For a long time, functional programming has been a bit on the sidelines— popular in academia, but not that widely used in industry.

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